From the Desert to Diplomacy: Gertrude Bell’s Role in Iraq’s Formation

di Paola Laviola [*] 

The aftermath of the looting of the National Museum of Baghdad between April 8 and 12, 2003, marked a profound moment in the history of cultural heritage preservation. As U.S. forces captured the city, fires ravaged the museum, leaving numerous invaluable artifacts stolen or destroyed. For weeks, global media extensively covered the events surrounding the disappearance and devastation of these cultural treasures —an outcome that was not merely the action of desperate crowds or enraged citizens. It ignited debates concerning the broader implications of the loss of Iraq’s cultural history. This disaster marked another chapter in a long history of state-building ambitions, echoing earlier events like the British occupation of Iraq after World War  I— interventions that purported to promote state-building and liberation but were driven by political and economic motives, once again leaving Iraq in a vulnerable balance.

The Baghdad Museum, established in the 1920s by Gertrude Bell, reflected her vision of Arab self-determination. A pioneering archaeologist and British official, Bell was pivotal in shaping Iraq’s national identity and archaeological heritage. Often overshadowed by contemporaries like T.E. Lawrence despite her accomplishments, she was hailed as «…the most influential figure in the Middle East» (Howell, 2006) of her time, using her intellect, determination, and political skill to help shape modern Iraq. 

Early Life and Intellectual Formation

Born into an affluent industrialist family in County Durham, Gertrude Bell benefited from a privileged upbringing that granted her access to an exceptional education. She attended Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, where she earned a First-Class degree in Modern History in just two years — a notable accomplishment for a woman of her time. Although she did not undertake formal studies in Oriental languages, she later became proficient in both Persian and Arabic. These linguistic skills would prove critical to her diplomatic and cultural work in the Middle East.

Bell’s family wealth facilitated extensive travel, particularly across the Middle East, where she acquired knowledge that significantly informed her political and archaeological work. Her interest in the region began in the early 1890s when she visited her uncle, Sir Frank Lascelles, who had just been appointed British minister (equivalent to ambassador) in Tehran. In 1892, she journeyed to Persia, where she spent several months immersing herself in its culture —a rich experience she later chronicled in Persian Pictures, published in 1896. Notably, while shaped by the prevailing ideologies of the Victorian era, Persian Pictures offers nuanced portrayals of Persia that go beyond the simplistic lens of British political dominance (Preece, 2015). Although influenced by contemporary views on race and gender, her keen awareness of intercultural dynamics reveals her awareness of how her British identity shaped her perspective.

During this time, Bell also deepened her linguistic skills, leading to her 1897 translation of The Divān of Hafez (Hafez, 14th century), which was later celebrated for both its artistic and scholarly excellence. This combination of cultural curiosity and linguistic proficiency shaped her later endeavors in the Middle East.

In the following decade, Bell’s adventurous spirit extended to mountaineering, where she attained notable successes in Switzerland. She spent much of these years traveling extensively, exploring various ancient sites across Palestine, Syria, and Jordan, where she cultivated a deep passion for archaeology and languages. While in Syria, she developed a notable connection with the Druze community in Jabal al-Druze, a population renowned for its cultural insularity. This interaction underscored her remarkable ability to navigate complex social landscapes and establish cross-cultural relationships.

In sum, Gertrude Bell’s early life, characterized by a keen curiosity and extensive travel, played a significant role in the formation of her distinctive personality. 

Gertrude’s Role in Iraq’s Cultural and Political Development

In 1905, she returned to Palestine and Syria. Equipped with advanced cameras, surveying instruments, and personal items — bedouin tribes often judged her status by her possessions and her gifts and treated her accordingly (Howell, 2015) — reflecting both modern technology and refined taste. Accompanied by her servant, Fatouf, she embarked on one of her longest expeditions.

Her itinerary commenced with a photographic and architectural survey of Aleppo, followed by an extensive journey along the Euphrates River. Her journeys — undertaken in often harsh conditions — demonstrated her unwavering determination and scholarly dedication. Navigating the Arabian and Syrian deserts with political sensitivity, she forged relationships with tribal leaders, relationships that later proved crucial in her intelligence work.

Throughout this trip, Bell reflected on her growing attachment to the Middle East and her vision for its self-determined future, free from Western interference «Someday I hope the East will be strong again and develop its own civilization, not imitate ours. And then perhaps it will teach us a few things we once learned from it and have now forgotten, to our great loss» (Gertrude Bell Archive, n.d.).

While exploring Assyrian and Yazidi territories, she cataloged Byzantine and Islamic ruins, photographed the relief carvings at Halamata Cave, and meticulously mapped the ruins of Ukhaidir. During her visit to the ancient Hittite city of Carchemish, Bell collaborated with archaeologists T. E. Lawrence and Reginald Campbell Thompson. Her initial meeting with Lawrence marked the start of a lasting pivotal friendship (Wallach, 2005) maintained through frequent correspondence. Both shared notable similarities: First Class Honours degrees in Modern History from Oxford, fluency in Arabic, and extensive experience across the Arabian desert. Their respective roles in the Arab Revolt would later be crucial, with Lawrence spearheading guerrilla tactics and Bell serving as a political advisor.

Her exploration extended to key historical locations such as Babylon and Najaf. Perhaps most notably, Bell ventured into Najd, the central region of modern Saudi Arabia, whose isolation had historically limited external understanding. She recorded her observations in The Letters of Gertrude Bell (1927), offering Western audiences rare insight into the region’s geography, demographics, and cultural connections (AlOboudi, 2015). However, her accounts primarily emphasized political and archaeological matters, with limited attention to everyday life as Najd’s conservative society further impeded external observers’ understanding.

Bell’s books, including Syria:The desert and the sown (1907) and From Amurath to Amurath (1911), remain foundational texts in Middle Eastern history and archaeology (Edmonds, 1969). In these works, she provides rich portrayals of the region, moving beyond the view of British political control. Bell’s sensitivity to interactions is woven throughout her writings, demonstrating her respect for the cultures and traditions she encountered and empathetic understanding of local customs and values.

Her travels through ancient Mesopotamian sites, such as Nineveh, were marked by meticulous documentation through sketches and photographs, which offeres vivid impressions of the geography and its diverse people. These records not only captured the region’s landscapes but also painted intimate portraits of its inhabitants — tribal leaders, peasants, and even harem women with whom she shared meals and stories, bringing to life the complexities of a world in transition.

As her journey continued, Bell’s writings began to reflect the evolving challenges she faced. Although Bell’s writings often romanticized the desert, they also reflected the harsh realities of her journeys, including encounters with untrustworthy guides and complex negotiations with tribal leaders. Her resilience and pragmatism shone through these experiences. Meanwhile, her observations of Mesopotamia exposed the administrative failures of the Ottoman Empire: in Baghdad, she encountered widespread dissatisfaction, fueled by corruption, poverty, tribal revolts, and crop failures. Conversations with local officials deepened her understanding of the issues, revealing the extent of the frustrations among the populace (Bell, 1911).

Moving into the vast expanse of the Arabian Desert, her expeditions fostered a profound connection with the region. Here, her contributions to cartography and scholarship left a lasting mark. She corrected inaccuracies in maps, documented tribal politics, and pioneered innovative photographic techniques that enriched future studies. The Thousand and One Churches (1907), co-authored with Sir William Ramsay, and The Palace and Mosque at Ukhaidir (1914) are still highly regarded for their detailed archaeological insights. Notably, her 1913-1914 expedition from Damascus to Ha’il provided critical intelligence on the Rashids and Ottoman authority. Her passion for archaeology shaped her perspectives on both ancient and modern societies, allowing her to approach her work with a unique blend of scholarly insight and practical understanding of the ever-evolving cultural and political landscape. 

By the onset of World War I, her deepening knowledge of Arab politics and tribal structures made her an invaluable asset to British intelligence. When the British War Office sought an assessment of the political landscape in Ottoman Syria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia, she delivered a detailed report on local support for British influence. Her analysis likely categorized communities and leaders by approval, neutrality, or discontent, shaping British policymakers’ understanding and strategic decisions in the years that followed.

Between 1914 and 1915, she worked with distinction in the Wounded & Missing Enquiry Department (Wallach, 2005/1996) initially in France and later in London, where her administrative reforms earned royal recognition. As the war effort expanded, her talents were redirected to the Arab Bureau in Cairo, a crucial branch of British intelligence. Working alongside T.E. Lawrence, she played a pivotal role in mapping Arab tribes, gathering intelligence on their politics, and formulating strategies to support the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire. Mobilizing Arab support was a delicate undertaking, complicated by the region’s complex divisions. The Bedouins, fiercely independent, demanded material compensation for their allegiance, while urban Arabs sought guarantees of political sovereignty and religious autonomy.

In 1916, she was appointed as an advisor to Percy Cox, the Chief Political Officer in Basra and her later promotion to Oriental Secretary marked her as the first woman to hold such a senior position in the British colonial system. In Basra and Baghdad, she navigated Iraq’s complex tribal landscape, shaping British policy in the region (Lukitz, 2006). Bell’s influence during this period was unmatched for a woman of her time, a testament to her intellectual prowess and understanding of local power dynamics through diplomacy and strategy. She spent these years establishing vital relationships with Iraqi leaders, mapping tribal loyalties, and offering key insights into the region’s political currents. Her reports directly influenced high-level decisions, providing the essential access to local intelligence that Britain needed at that time.

Following the end of World War I, the political reshaping of the Middle East was formalized with the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. The 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement (Tripp, 2007) divided the region between Britain and France, with Britain taking control of Iraq, Transjordan, and Palestine, while France governed Syria and Lebanon —famously ignoring the region’s ethnic and religious complexities and sowing seeds of instability that continue to echo in the present day.

Caught between supporting Arab independence and the realities of postwar agreements, Bell and Lawrence of Arabia found their ideals in contrast with Britain’s imperial ambitions (Lukitz, 2006). Both believed in the promise of Arab autonomy, but their efforts were often undermined by Britain’s pursuit of regional control.

The year 1919 proved to be a turbulent one for both Britain and Bell. She found herself at odds with politicians over the importance of stabilizing Iraq and promoting self-governance amidst the region’s political turmoil; while Britain faced significant governance challenges in the Middle East, marked by rising nationalist unrest -the Egyptian Revolution, Shia tribal uprisings, and persistent instability across the former Ottoman territories. During this time, she traveled through Egypt, Palestine, and Hashemite-ruled Syria.

As Oriental Secretary to the High Commissioner of Iraq, Bell participated in key postwar negotiations, including the 1919 Paris Peace Conference and the 1921 Cairo Conference. These discussions focused on the region’s future: maintaining British rule, granting independence, or ceding territories to Turkey. Bell, along with Lawrence and Percy Cox, supported the creation of independent states in Transjordan and Iraq, advocating for the Sharifian Solution, which would place Hussein bin Ali’s sons, Abdullah and Faisal, in leadership roles.

Bell was instrumental in selecting Faisal as Iraq’s first king, believing his outsider status would unify the diverse Iraqi population. His lineage from the Prophet Muhammad could win Shia loyalty, while his Sunni heritage would resonate with Sunni Iraqis. However, the Sunni population leaned toward pan-Arabism and Sharifism, a challenge Bell underestimated.

Despite resistance, Bell remained committed to her vision of an independent Arab state under British influence, gaining the support of Winston Churchill, who had initially opposed her views. Bell was also influenced by the British romantic view of the desert Arabs of the Hejaz, idealized as “pure” Arabs and natural leader (Yakoubi, Collins, & Tripp, 2017). Churchill, motivated by financial considerations (Eskander, 2017) — aligned with the plans aimed to reduce colonial costs- saw Iraq as a more sustainable option if it could become a self-governing state.

The 1921 Cairo Conference was a pivotal moment. Convened by the British Colonial Office and led by Winston Churchill, the conference aimed to establish British control over Iraq and Transjordan. Key decisions included the selection of Emir Faisal as King of Iraq, with Bell playing a critical role in advocating for his leadership, believing him uniquely capable of unifying Iraq’s Sunni, Shi’a, and Kurdish populations. Bell’s influence extended to shaping Iraq’s borders, political framework, and first elections. Despite resistance, her unwavering commitment to Iraq’s development reflected a deep optimism for the country’s future.

One of the central issues at the conference was Mosul’s future which sparked intense debate. Despite initial opposition and conditional Kurdish inclusion, Bell secured Mosul’s incorporation (Wallach, 1996) into Iraq, with the decision ratified by the Treaty of Ankara in 1926, though Kurdish autonomy promises were largely ignored.

While the conference sought to fulfill wartime promises to the Arabs through the “Sharifian Solution” which involved granting nominal leadership to the sons of Sharif Hussein of Mecca, British strategic interests remained paramount. The resulting states of Iraq and Jordan faced issues of national identity, tribal divisions, and external threats, while unresolved regional tensions, including the Palestinian question, continued to shape the Middle East.

Following the conference, Faisal was crowned King of Baghdad on August 23, 1921. Though initially seeking independence from British oversight, Faisal was persuaded by Bell to sign a treaty that placed Iraq under British protection, with the promise of a gradual path to full independence. The opposer to Faisal’s selection was Sayyid Talib, a key figure in early 20th-century Iraqi politics -though initially allied with the British during the campaign against Ottoman rule (Visser, 2005). Bell, understanding the complex regional dynamics and his resilience (Schlaepfer, 2021) recommended his exile, a decisive move that ended his political career and relieved Britain of a diplomatic concern. 

The Enduring Legacy in Cultural Preservation

Gertrude Bell’s commitment to Iraq transcended her political endeavors, reaching into the realm of cultural preservation. A Law of Antiquities was included in the Anglo-Iraq Treaty of 1922, and soon after, a Department of Antiquities was created.

At the request of King Faisal, Gertrude Bell was appointed Honorary Director (Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2012) and Bell turned her focus to archaeology, becoming deeply involved in cataloging and safeguarding Iraq’s heritage.

In collaboration with the University of Pennsylvania, Oxford, and Chicago, the British Museum began excavations. Bell worked tirelessly to improve cataloging methods and protect artifacts from looting and illegal export. She also advocated for the education of Iraqi women and served as president of the Baghdad Library, which would eventually become the Iraq National Library. 

Her work culminated in the founding of the Baghdad Antiquities Museum, which was attended by King Faisal. The museum symbolized Bell’s dedication to preserving Iraq’s ancient culture and establishing a national identity.

The Law of Antiquities, enacted in June 1924 with Bell’s guidance, led to the creation of a proper space for artifact preservation. A small, cramped room in a government office was replaced with a museum in 1926, ensuring better care for Iraq’s cultural treasures.

Though Bell passed away in 1926, her legacy continued to shape Iraq’s cultural landscape. The right wing of the museum was named in her honor, and a plaque was unveiled in 1927. However, her work faced significant challenges as nationalist movements and conflicts disrupted Iraq’s preservation efforts.

Though some artifacts have been recovered, the loss of many others highlights the fragility of Bell’s vision. Despite the challenges, her pioneering work remains the foundation for future restoration efforts. 

Gertrude Bell’s legacy is defined by its complexity and lasting impact on the Middle East. As an explorer, diplomat, and scholar, her contributions to history and archaeology continue to shape the region today. While her involvement in the British imperial project has drawn criticism, her dedication to Arab autonomy and cultural preservation in Iraq set her apart from many of her peers, earning respect from both British officials and Arab leaders. Bell’s vision of a moderate Arab nationalism as a path to stability remains significant, even as Western influence and internal tensions proved its fragility.

In 2017, the Gertrude Bell archive, a comprehensive collection of her writings maintained by Newcastle University, was included in the UNESCO Memory of the World Programme.

Though in the past overlooked in historical narratives, Bell’s archaeological findings, writings, and diplomatic insights remain invaluable resources, cementing her multifaceted legacy. 

Dialoghi Mediterranei, n. 72, marzo 2025

[*] Abstract

Questo articolo esplora l’eredità culturale e politica di Gertrude Bell, esploratrice, archeologa e diplomatica, concentrandosi sul suo ruolo fondamentale nella formazione dello Stato dell’Iraq e sulla fondazione del Museo di Baghdad. Attraverso un’analisi della vita e del lavoro di Bell nel primo Novecento, lo studio esamina i suoi sforzi per plasmare l’identità nazionale dell’Iraq e proteggere il suo patrimonio antico nel contesto degli interessi imperialisti britannici. L’articolo si apre con il saccheggio del Museo Nazionale di Baghdad nel 2003, mettendo in evidenza l’intersezione tra distruzione culturale, conflitti geopolitici e la vulnerabilità storica dei tesori culturali dell’Iraq. Esaminando la formazione intellettuale di Bell, le sue attività politiche e archeologiche, nonché la sua influenza sulla costruzione dello Stato post-ottomano dell’Iraq. L’articolo sostiene che le sue contribuzioni furono determinanti nel porre le basi per la protezione del patrimonio dell’Iraq, nonostante le sfide future e la fragilità della sua visione. L’eredità di Bell, segnata dalla sua difesa dell’autonomia araba, dal suo lavoro accademico e dalle sue azioni diplomatiche, rimane una forza significativa negli sforzi di restauro culturale dell’Iraq. 

REFERENCES

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Bell, G. (1920, February 29 & July 26). Letters to her father (Gertrude Bell Archive: Newcastle University).

Bell, G. (1896). Persian pictures. John Murray.

Bell, G. (1897). The divān of Hafez (Translated by G. Bell). Oxford University Press.

Bell, G. (1907). Syria: The desert and the sown. Macmillan.

Bell, G. (1911). From Amurath to Amurath. Macmillan.

Bell, G. (1914). The palace and mosque at Ukhaidir. Macmillan.

Bell, G. (1927). The letters of Gertrude Bell. Macmillan.

Bell, G., & Ramsay, W. (1907). The thousand and one churches. John Murray.

Bell, G. L. (1911). Amurath to Amurath. William Heinemann.

Edmonds, C. J. (1969). Gertrude Bell in the near and middle east. Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, 56(3), 229–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/03068376908732080

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. (2012). National Museum of Iraq. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived April 2, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved February 6, 2012, from https://www.britannica.com/

Eskander, S. B. (2017). Gertrude Bell and the formation of the Iraqi state: The Kurdish dimension. In P. Collins & C. Tripp (Eds.), Gertrude Bell in Iraq: A Life and Legacy: 215–238. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.5871/bacad/9780197266076.003.0009

Gertrude Bell Archive. (n.d.). Letter to Florence Bell. Newcastle University. Retrieved from https://gertrudebell.ncl.ac.uk/l/gb-1-1-1-1-19-2

Howell, G. (2006). Gertrude Bell: Queen of the Desert, Shaper of Nations. Farrer, Straus and Giroux.

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Schlaepfer, A. (2021). Between ruler and rogue: Sayyid Talib al-Naqib and the British in early twentieth-century Basra. In Iraq in the twentieth century: Politics, culture, and identity: 221–239. Edinburgh University Press. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.3366/j.ctv1vtz871.14.pdf

The Divān of Hafez: A collection of Persian lyrical poetry written by Hafez, a 14th-century poet known for his ghazals celebrating love, wine, and spiritual mysticism. Hafez’s work is highly regarded in Persian literature and has influenced both Eastern and Western literary traditions.

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Yakoubi, M., Collins, P., & Tripp, C. (2017). Gertrude Bell’s perception of Faisal I of Iraq and the Anglo-Arab romance. In P. Collins & C. Tripp (Eds.), Gertrude Bell and Iraq: A life and legacy (Proceedings of the British Academy). British Academy. https://doi.org/10.5871/bacad/9780197266076.003.0008

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Paola Laviola, originaria di Lucera, in provincia di Foggia, si è laureata in Lettere Moderne all’Università degli Studi di Macerata. In seguito, ha conseguito un master in Scienze Storiche presso l’Università Cattolica di Milano e si è laureata cum Laude con la tesi “Donne e Giustizia Penale nella Capitanata dell’Ottocento” basata sull’analisi di documenti giudiziari dell’Archivio di Stato di Lucera. Studiosa di storia e antropologia, ha vissuto in diversi Paesi e ha viaggiato a lungo in Asia, approfondendo la storia e le religioni. Attualmente vive negli Emirati Arabi Uniti.

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